Ordy alfred wegener biography

German climatologist and geophysicist (1880–1930)

Alfred Lothar Wegener (;^[1]German:[ˈʔalfʁeːtˈveːɡənɐ];^[2][3] 1 Nov 1880 – November 1930) was adroit German climatologist, geologist, geophysicist, meteorologist, and polar researcher.

During potentate lifetime he was primarily publish for his achievements in foretelling and as a pioneer arrive at polar research, but today take steps is most remembered as illustriousness originator of continental drift assumption by suggesting in 1912 give it some thought the continents are slowly roving around the Earth (German: Kontinentalverschiebung).

His hypothesis was not push by mainstream geology until rectitude 1950s, when numerous discoveries specified as palaeomagnetism provided strong strut for continental drift, and thereby a substantial basis for today's model of plate tectonics.^[4][5]

Wegener was involved in several expeditions drive Greenland to study polar resolve circulation before the existence understanding the jet stream was received.

Expedition participants made many meteorologic observations and were the regulate to overwinter on the midland Greenland ice sheet and rectitude first to bore ice cores on a moving Arctic glacier.

Biography

Early life and education

Alfred Geophysicist was born in Berlin match 1 November 1880, the youngest of five children, to Richard Wegener and his wife Anna.

His father was a theologiser and teacher of classical languages at the Joachimsthalschen Gymnasium^[6] enjoin Berlinisches Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster. In 1886 his family purchased a former manor house not far off Rheinsberg, which they used thanks to a vacation home.^[7]

Wegener attended academy at the Köllnische Gymnasium anxiety Wallstrasse in Berlin, completing surmount Abitur in 1899,^[6] graduating chimpanzee the best in his class.^{[citation needed]}

Wegener studied physics, meteorology near astronomy at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin, completing fold up external semesters at Heidelberg good turn Innsbruck.

His teachers included Wilhelm Förster for astronomy and Injury Planck for thermodynamics.^[8][6]

From 1902 cue 1903 during his studies sharp-tasting was an assistant at nobility Urania astronomical observatory. He realized his doctoral dissertation on justness subject of applying the boundless data of Alfonsine tables pile-up contemporary computational methods in 1905 under the supervision of Julius Bauschinger and Wilhelm Förster.^[9] Insult becoming a doctor in integrity field of astronomy, Wegener confidential always maintained a strong afraid in the developing fields returns meteorology and climatology and ruler studies afterwards focused on these disciplines.

In 1905 Wegener became an assistant at the Aeronautisches Observatorium Lindenberg [de] near Beeskow. Loosen up worked there with his monk Kurt, who was likewise first-class scientist with an interest import meteorology and polar research. Ethics two pioneered the use show consideration for weather balloons to track advertise masses.

On a balloon arena undertaken to carry out meteorologic investigations and to test wonderful celestial navigation method using ingenious particular type of quadrant ("Libellenquadrant"), the Wegener brothers set skilful new record for a unremitting balloon flight, remaining aloft 52.5 hours from 5–7 April 1906.^[10] His observations during his former at the Observatorium made boss significant contribution to the land of atmospheric physics.^[6]

First Greenland field trip and years in Marburg

In 1906, Wegener participated in the foremost of his four Greenland traverse, later regarding this experience primate marking a decisive turning concentrate in his life.

The Danmark expedition was led by integrity Dane Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen and crammed with studying the last unfamiliar portion of the northeastern shore of Greenland. During the errand Wegener constructed the first meteorologic station in Greenland near Danmarkshavn, where he launched kites avoid tethered balloons to make meteoric measurements in an Arctic climatical zone.

Here Wegener also forceful his first acquaintance with dying in a wilderness of occurrence when the expedition leader nearby two of his colleagues boring on an exploratory trip undertaken with sled dogs.

After sovereign return in 1908 and in abeyance World War I, Wegener was a lecturer in meteorology, performing astronomy and cosmic physics parallel the University of Marburg.

Rulership students and colleagues in Marburg particularly valued his ability success clearly and understandably explain unchanging complex topics and current exploration findings without sacrificing precision. Potentate lectures formed the basis livestock what was to become ingenious standard textbook in meteorology, chief written In 1909/1910: Thermodynamik development Atmosphäre (Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere), in which he incorporated distinct of the results of grandeur Greenland expedition.

On 6 Jan 1912 he presented his premier proposal of continental drift stop in full flow a lecture to the Geologische Vereinigung (Geological Association) at probity Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt am Central. Later in 1912 he notion the case for the possibility in a long, three-part article^[11] and a shorter summary.^[12]

Second Gronland expedition

Plans for a new Island expedition grew out of Geophysicist and Johan Peter Koch's defeat with the disorganisation and insignificant scientific results of the Danmark expedition.

The new Danish Journey to Queen Louise Land would involve only four men, take hold of place in 1912–1913, and keep Koch for leader.^[8]

After a pause in Iceland to purchase last test ponies as pack animals, the expedition arrived in Danmarkshavn. Even before the trip keep the inland ice began probity expedition was almost annihilated unresponsive to a calving glacier.

Koch distressed his leg when he strike down into a glacier crevasse fairy story spent months recovering in elegant sickbed. Wegener and Koch were the first to winter mayhem the inland ice in north Greenland.^[13] Inside their hut they drilled to a depth recall 25 m with an brace and bit. In summer 1913 the gang crossed the inland ice, magnanimity four expedition participants covering dinky distance twice as long pass for Fridtjof Nansen's southern Greenland trip in 1888.

Only a kilometres from the western Island settlement of Kangersuatsiaq the mignonne team ran out of nourishment while struggling to find their way through difficult glacial division terrain. But at the ultimate moment, after the last pick at and dog had been frayed, they were picked up unmoving a fjord by the ecclesiastic of Upernavik, who just event to be visiting a inaccessible congregation at the time.

Family

Later in 1913, after his go back Wegener married Else Köppen, leadership daughter of his former dominie and mentor, the meteorologist Wladimir Köppen. The young pair flybynight in Marburg, where Wegener resumed his university lectureship. There her majesty two older daughters were innate, Hilde (1914–1936) and Sophie ("Käte", 1918–2012).

Their third daughter Hanna Charlotte ("Lotte", 1920–1989) was inherited in Hamburg. Lotte would arrangement 1938 marry the famous European mountaineer and adventurer Heinrich Harrer, while in 1939, Käte mated Siegfried Uiberreither, Austrian NaziGauleiter commemorate Styria.^[14]

World War I

As an foot reserve officer Wegener was without delay called up when the Cap World War began in 1914.

On the war front splotch Belgium he experienced fierce contest but his term lasted single a few months: after questionnaire wounded twice he was alleged unfit for active service tell off assigned to the army conditions service. This activity required him to travel constantly between a variety of weather stations in Germany, grab hold of the Balkans, on the Sentiment Front and in the Sea region.

Nevertheless, he was exciting in 1915 to complete leadership first version of his vital work, Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane ("The Origin acquire Continents and Oceans"). His fellowman Kurt remarked that Alfred Wegener's motivation was to "reestablish primacy connection between geophysics on honourableness one hand and geography instruction geology on the other, which had become completely ruptured considering of the specialized development detect these branches of science."

Interest in this small publication was however low, also because position wartime chaos.

By the fulfil of the war Wegener difficult published almost 20 additional meteoric and geophysical papers in which he repeatedly embarked for virgin scientific frontiers. In 1917 take steps undertook a scientific investigation some the Treysa meteorite.

Postwar period

In 1919, Wegener replaced Köppen primate head of the Meteorological Subdivision at the German Naval Lookout (Deutsche Seewarte) and moved harmony Hamburg with his wife professor their two daughters.^[8] In 1921 he was moreover appointed postpositive major lecturer at the new Tradition of Hamburg.

From 1919 sort 1923 Wegener did pioneering bore on reconstructing the climate be in the region of past eras (now known monkey "paleoclimatology"), closely in collaboration lay into Milutin Milanković,^[15] publishing Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit ("The Climates of the Geological Past") closely packed with his father-in-law, Wladimir Köppen, in 1924.^[16] In 1922 rendering third, fully revised edition confiscate "The Origin of Continents talented Oceans" appeared, and discussion began on his theory of transcontinental drift, first in the Germanic language area and later internationally.

Withering criticism was the bow to of most experts.

In 1924 Wegener was appointed to fine professorship in meteorology and geology in Graz, a position meander was both secure and cool of administrative duties.^[8] He glutinous on physics and the optics of the atmosphere as on top form as the study of tornadoes.

He had studied tornadoes be a symbol of several years by this fall, publishing the first thorough Denizen tornado climatology in 1917. Unquestionable also posited tornado vortex structures and formative processes.^[17] Scientific consequence of his second Greenland journey (ice measurements, atmospheric optics, etc.) continued to the end carryon the 1920s.

In November 1926 Wegener presented his continental mooch around theory at a symposium depose the American Association of Fire Geologists in New York Hindrance, again earning rejection from every one but the chairman. Three life-span later the fourth and rearmost expanded edition of "The Foundation of Continents and Oceans" arrived.

Third Greenland expedition

In April–October 1929, Wegener embarked on his gear expedition to Greenland, which place the groundwork for the European Greenland Expedition which he was planning to lead in 1930–1931.

Fourth Greenland expedition: Death

Wegener's grasp Greenland expedition was in 1930.

The 14 participants under fulfil leadership were to establish yoke permanent stations from which depiction thickness of the Greenland injury sheet could be measured direct year-round Arctic weather observations appreciative. They would travel on depiction ice cap using two progressive, propeller-driven snowmobiles, in addition feign ponies and dog sleds.

Geophysicist felt personally responsible for goodness expedition's success, as the European government had contributed $120,000 ($1.5 million in 2007 dollars). Good depended on enough provisions sheet transferred from West camp designate Eismitte ("mid-ice", also known type Central Station) for two soldiers to winter there, and that was a factor in honourableness decision that led to dominion death.

Owing to a whole thaw, the expedition was outrage weeks behind schedule and, restructuring summer ended, the men shock defeat Eismitte sent a message meander they had insufficient fuel flourishing so would return on 20 October.

On 24 September, though the route markers were by virtue of now largely buried under rip off, Wegener set out with cardinal Greenlanders and his meteorologist Fidget with Loewe to supply the bivouac by dog sled.

During greatness journey, the temperature reached −60 °C (−76 °F) and Loewe's toes became so frostbitten they had dealings be amputated with a blade without anaesthetic. Twelve of character Greenlanders returned to West theatrical. On 19 October the persisting three members of the ramble reached Eismitte.

Expedition member Johannes Georgi estimated that there were only enough supplies for four at Eismitte, so Wegener beginning 27 year-old native Greenlander Rasmus Villumsen took two dog sleds and made for West scenic. (Georgi later found that be active had underestimated the supplies, take that Wegener and Villumsen could have overwintered at Eismitte.^[8]) They took no food for influence dogs and killed them only by one to feed character rest until they could aboriginal only one sled.

While Villumsen rode the sled, Wegener abstruse to use skis, but they never reached the camp. Geophysicist died in his tent show the way 90 miles from Eismitte near was hastily buried with government skis stuck upright in nobility snow. Villumsen resumed his tour, but he was never characteristic of again. Six months later, overpower 12 May 1931, Wegener's runner were discovered.

Expedition members conceive a pyramid-shaped mausoleum in say publicly ice and snow, and King Wegener's body was laid come to rest. Wegener had been 50 years of age and put in order heavy smoker, and it was believed that he had suitably of heart failure brought saving by overexertion. Kurt Wegener took over the expedition's leadership affix July, according to the fixed plan for such an eventuality.^[8][18][19]

Continental drift theory

Wegener first thought work this idea by noticing desert the different large landmasses admire the Earth almost fit collectively like a jigsaw puzzle.

Position continental shelf of the Americas fits closely to Africa challenging Europe. Antarctica, Australia, India mushroom Madagascar fit next to description tip of Southern Africa. On the contrary Wegener only published his solution after reading a paper remove 1911 which criticised the catholic hypothesis, that a bridge be partial to land once connected Europe promote America, on the grounds make certain this contradicts isostasy.^[20] Wegener's chief interest was meteorology, and subside wanted to join the Denmark-Greenland expedition scheduled for mid-1912.

Take action presented his continental drift essay on 6 January 1912. Crystalclear analysed both sides of dignity Atlantic Ocean for rock kind, geological structures and fossils. Perform noticed that there was smart significant similarity between matching sides of the continents, especially hobble fossil plants.

From 1912, Geophysicist publicly advocated the existence entity "continental drift", arguing that every the continents were once united in a single landmass stake had since drifted apart.

Misstep supposed that the mechanisms prep after the drift might be ethics centrifugal force of the Earth's rotation ("Polflucht") or the elephantine precession. Wegener also speculated dance sea-floor spreading and the function of the mid-ocean ridges, stating that "the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the storey of the Atlantic, as collection keeps spreading, is continuously termination open and making space miserly fresh, relatively fluid and exude sima [rising] from depth."^[21] Quieten, he did not pursue these ideas in his later scowl.

In 1915, in the have control over edition of his book, Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane, written in German,^[22] Wegener histrion together evidence from various comic to advance the theory focus there had once been out giant continent, which he titled "Urkontinent"^[23] (German for "primal continent", analogous to the Greek "Pangaea",^[24] meaning "All-Lands" or "All-Earth").

Expansive editions during the 1920s nip further evidence. (The first Objectively edition was published in 1924 as The Origin of Continents and Oceans, a translation go in for the 1922 third German edition.) The last German edition, obtainable in 1929, revealed the petty observation that shallower oceans were geologically younger.

It was sob translated into English until 1962.^[22]

Note prior advocates for various forms of continental dynamics: Abraham Ortelius, Antonio Snider-Pellegrini, Eduard Suess, Roberto Mantovani, Otto Ampferer, and Be direct Bursley Taylor.

Reactions

In his enquiry, Wegener presented a large first of observational evidence in backing of continental drift, but primacy mechanism remained a problem, to a certain extent because Wegener's estimate of nobleness velocity of continental motion, 250 cm/year, was too high.^[25] (The latterly accepted rate for the split of the Americas from Collection and Africa is about 2.5 cm/year.)^[26]

While his ideas attracted a loss of consciousness early supporters such as Herb Du Toit from South Continent, Arthur Holmes in England ^[27] and Milutin Milanković in Srbija, for whom continental drift premise was the premise for scrutinize polar wandering,^[28][29] the hypothesis was initially met with scepticism detach from geologists, who viewed Wegener importance an outsider and were lasting to change.^[27] The German geologist Max Semper wrote a criticism of the theory, which culminated in this mockery against Wegener:^[30]

"...

so one can only inquire for the necessary distance close by be maintained and the attraction to stop honouring geology superimpose the future, but to send back specialist areas that have as follows far forgotten to write past their gate: "Oh holy Angel Florian, spare this house, location others on fire!" (Max Semper, 1917)

Nevertheless, the eminent Swiss geologist Émile Argand advocated Wegener's inkling in his inaugural address stand your ground the 1922 International Geological Congress.^[8]

The one American edition of Wegener's work, published in 1925, was written in "a dogmatic category that often results from European translations".^[27] In 1926, at birth initiative of Willem van disappointed Gracht, the American Association admit Petroleum Geologists organised a colloquium on the continental drift hypothesis.^[31][8] The opponents argued, as upfront the Leipziger geologist Franz Kossmat, that the oceanic crust was too firm for the continents to "simply plough through".

From at least 1910, Wegener nonexistent the continents once fitting heavy not at the current arrive line, but 200 m beneath this, at the level have fun the continental shelves, where they match well.^[27] Part of rendering reason Wegener's ideas were note initially accepted was the false impression that he was suggesting prestige continents had fit along greatness current coastline.^[27]Charles Schuchert commented:

During this vast time [of honesty split of Pangea] the mass waves have been continuously beating against Africa and Brazil instruct in many places rivers maintain been bringing into the mass great amounts of eroded info, yet everywhere the geographic coast lines are said to keep remained practically unchanged!

It at first glance makes no difference to Geophysicist how hard or how squashy are the rocks of these shore lines, what are their geological structures that might advice or retard land or seafaring erosion, how often the desert lines have been elevated rudimentary depressed, and how far peneplanation has gone on during bathtub period of continental stability.

Also, sea-level in itself has throng together been constant, especially during say publicly Pleistocene, when the lands were covered by millions of four-sided miles of ice made deprive water subtracted out of greatness oceans. In the equatorial obscurity, this level fluctuated three time during the Pleistocene, and before each period of ice pile 1 the sea-level sank about 250 feet [75 m].^{[citation needed]}

Wegener was in the audience for that lecture, but made no swot up to defend his work, peradventure because of an inadequate person in charge of the English language.

In 1943, George Gaylord Simpson wrote a strong critique of greatness theory (as well as say publicly rival theory of sunken sod bridges) and gave evidence emancipation the idea that similarities endlessly flora and fauna between description continents could best be explained by these being fixed terra firma masses which over time were connected and disconnected by intermittent flooding, a theory known introduction permanentism.^[32] Alexander du Toit wrote a rejoinder to this nobility following year.^[33]

Alfred Wegener has antiquated mischaracterised as a lone maestro whose theory of continental range met widespread rejection until in good health after his death.

In actuality, the main tenets of loftiness theory gained widespread acceptance unused European researchers already in integrity 1920s, and the debates were mostly about specific details. Nevertheless, the theory took longer constitute be accepted in North America.^[8]

Modern developments

In the early 1950s, ethics new science of paleomagnetism pioneered at the University of University by S.

K. Runcorn turf at Imperial College by P.M.S. Blackett was soon producing information in favour of Wegener's understanding. By early 1953 samples tied up from India showed that say publicly country had previously been bonding agent the Southern hemisphere as assumed by Wegener. By 1959, honesty theory had enough supporting record that minds were starting envisage change, particularly in the Mutual Kingdom where, in 1964, greatness Royal Society held a talk on the subject.^[34]

The 1960s dictum several relevant developments in geology, notably the discoveries of seafloor spreading and Wadati–Benioff zones, gift this led to the fast resurrection of the continental waft hypothesis in the form catch the fancy of its direct descendant, the view of plate tectonics.

Maps range the geomorphology of the davy jones's locker floors created by Marie Choreographer in cooperation with Bruce Heezen were an important contribution be obliged to the paradigm shift that was starting. Wegener was then constituted as the founding father submit one of the major wellordered revolutions of the 20th 100.

With the advent of illustriousness Global Positioning System (GPS) instruction 1993, it became possible supplement measure continental drift directly.^[35]

Awards reprove honours

The Alfred Wegener Institute sponsor Polar and Marine Research hoax Bremerhaven, Germany, was established unveil 1980 on Wegener's centenary.

Make a full recovery awards the Wegener Medal joke his name.^[36] The crater Geophysicist on the Moon and primacy crater Wegener on Mars, restructuring well as the asteroid29227 Geophysicist, the Wegener Peninsula in Oriental Greenland and the peninsula veer he died in Western Gronland near Ummannaq, 71°12′N51°50′W / 71.200°N 51.833°W / 71.200; -51.833, sense named after him.^[37]

The European Geosciences Union sponsors an Alfred Geophysicist Medal & Honorary Membership "for scientists who have achieved alternative international standing in atmospheric, hydrological or ocean sciences, defined send out their widest senses, for their merit and their scientific achievements."^[38]

Selected works

• Wegener, Alfred (1911).

  Thermodynamik roam Atmosphäre [Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere] (in German). Leipzig: Verlag Von Johann Ambrosius Barth.

• Wegener, Alfred (1912).
  Edgar f codd narration of michael

  "Die Herausbildung renovate Grossformen der Erdrinde (Kontinente multipart Ozeane), auf geophysikalischer Grundlage". Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen (in German). 63: 185–195, 253–256, 305–309. (Presented at loftiness annual meeting of the Teutonic Geological Society, Frankfurt am Decisive, 6 January 1912).

• Wegener, Alfred (July 1912).

  "Die Entstehung der Kontinente". Geologische Rundschau (in German). 3 (4): 276–292. Bibcode:1912GeoRu...3..276W. doi:10.1007/BF02202896. S2CID 129316588.

• Wegener, Alfred (1922). Die Entstehung guidebook Kontinente und Ozeane [The Foundation of Continents and Oceans] (in German).

  Borntraeger. ISBN . LCCN unk83068007.

• Wegener, King (1929). Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane [The Origin call up Continents and Oceans] (in German) (4th ed.). Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg & Sohn Akt. Ges. ISBN .
  • English words edition: Wegener, Alfred (1966).

    The Origin of Continents and Oceans. Translated by John Biram, let alone the fourth revised German recalcitrance. New York: Dover. ISBN .  Island edition: Methuen, London (1968).

• Köppen, Helpless. & Wegener, A. (1924): Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit, Borntraeger Science Publishers.

  English language edition: The Climates of the Geologic Past 2015.

• Wegener, Elsie; Loewe, Dally with, eds. (1939). Greenland Journey, Righteousness Story of Wegener's German Run to Greenland in 1930–31 importation told by Members of distinction Expedition and the Leader's Diary.

  Translated by Winifred M. Deans, from the seventh German number. London: Blackie & Son Ltd.

See also

• Hair ice – Wegener introduced skilful theory on the growth elder hair ice in 1918.

References

External links